Mothering
Tracy Spinrad & Cynthia A. Stifter
Human Development and Family Studies
The Pennsylvania State University
Mothering. Mothering refers to a mother's style of interaction with her child. A mother's early interaction style has been related to a variety of outcomes, including the development of the mother-infant relationship, children's prosocial behavior, and later behavioral problems. Specifically, mothers who were highly responsive and available to their children were more likely to have infants who developed more harmonious relationships with their mothers. Further, when mothers were more sensitive, their children were more empathic, more compliant with adults, and less likely to develop behavior problems (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988).
Many researchers agree that infants' early interactions with their primary caregivers are foremost in determining the quality of the mother-infant relationship, or attachment bond. Sensitive mothering in the first year of life is thought to predict the quality of the mother-infant attachment. Mothers who are more sensitive and responsive in their interactions (i.e. mothers who notice infant signals and respond to them appropriately) will have infants who will eventually develop a more adaptive (secure) attachment relationship. On the other hand, mothers who are more insensitive, rejecting, underinvolved, or intrusive are more likely to have infants who develop an insecure bond. The mother-infant attachment relationship is thought to set the tone for all future relationships. Research has shown also that infants who develop a harmonious relationship with their mothers tend to be less dependent on their teachers, more competent with their peers, and more cooperative with adults as children (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988).
Mothering also has been linked with children's prosocial and antisocial behavior. Specifically, the way mothers attempt to control their children has been associated with children's compliance, impulse control (i.e., not touching a forbidden object), and self-assertion. Mothers' use of suggestions and reasoning has been linked to higher compliance, whereas mothers' use of physical force, power-assertive behavior, or negative actions has been related to children's non-compliance and defiance (Crockenberg & Litman, 1990).
Although sensitive mothering is thought to predict the quality of the mother-infant relationship and children's later behavior, there are several important factors that contribute to the way mothers interact with their children. For example, maternal characteristics such as depression are related to less sensitive caregiving. Research indicates that depressed mothers showed less positive affect with their babies and were less responsive to their infants' cures (Downey & Coynew, 1990). Additionally, mothers' positive personality characteristics (e.g., extroversion, self-esteem) have been linked to more positive mothering (Fish, Stifter, & Belsky, 1993).
In addition, researchers have found a link between the way infants behave and mothering. Clearly, a mother's ability to respond to her infant is related to infant characteristics, as it is easier to respond sensitively to a baby who is easier to manage. There is evidence to suggest, for example, that mothers who rated their infants as more adaptable, approaching, and positive at 6 months provided more sensory and social stimulation to their infants at 6 and 12 months of age (Klein, 1984). On the other hand, maternal sensitivity is thought to impact infant behavior, specifically the infant's reactivity level. Sensitive mothers, for example, have infants whose crying is significantly reduced over time.
Further, sensitive mothering may be determined by family context, such as the marital relationship, the mother's social support network, or maternal employment. For example, mothers who were in more satisfied marriages and believed they had more supportive social networks were more responsive to their children (Fish, Stifter, & Belsky, 1993). Although there is considerable controversy regarding the impact of maternal employment on the mother-infant bond, there are few consistent findings regarding the link between maternal employment status and mothering style. Researchers have proposed that maternal attitudes (i.e., role satisfaction, separation anxiety) may contribute more to mothering than does employment status (Stifter, Coulehan, & Fish, 1993).
Recent research stresses the importance of considering the interactions among these variable to influence mothering. For instance, there is evidence that maternal employment interacts with mother characteristics to explain mothering. Consider an investigation by Stifter, Coulehan, and Fish (1993) that explored the interaction between maternal employment and separation anxiety in explaining maternal interaction style. The results of this work revealed no main effects for maternal employment status or separation anxiety. However, the researchers found that mothers who were highly anxious about separation from their children and employed outside of the home were more intrusive with their infants, and in turn, these children were more likely to be rated as having an insecure relationship with their mothers.
References
Crockenberg, S. & Litman, C. (1990). Autonomy as competence in 2-year-olds: Maternal correlates of child defiance, compliance and self-assertion. Developmental Psychology, 26, 961-971.
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50-76.
Fish, M., Stifter, C. A., & Belsky, J. (1993). Early patterns of mother-infant dyadic interaction: Infant, mother, and family demographic antecedents. Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 1-18.
Klein, P. S. (1984). Behavior of Israeli mothers toward infants in relation to infants; perceived temperament. Child Development, 55, 1212-1218.
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