Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this 1 unit course the learner will be able to:
- Define when a group of observations are well behaved.
- List how many questions a well-controlled study can
answer.
- Describe four conditions that must be met before a
subject can be enrolled in a study.
- Describe the importance of having a written protocol
before beginning a study.
Where are We Going?
The arithmetic of statistical analysis can be applied to any set of numbers. It
is the responsibility of both the investigator and the reader to decide if the
numbers accumulated during a study are appropriate for statistical analysis. One
of the first questions a person trained in statistical analysis asks is - are
the observations well behaved? Well-behaved observations can only arise from
studies that have been thoroughly planned, carefully executed and thoughtfully
reported. Unfortunately, ready access to computer software programs often leads
to frivolous analysis and vacuous hope that elaborate analytic schemes will make
up for poor planning and casual execution.
When Observations are Well-behaved
Scientific work demands that observation and observed events
be reproducible. An event recorded by a single investigator requires
confirmation, not only by the original investigator but also by other
investigators in an independent manner. It is the responsibility of the
statistician to decide whether the observations are well-behaved, reproducible,
and hence appropriate for statistical assessment.
There is no formal definition of well-behaved observations beyond perhaps saying
that they should look linear when plotted on normal probability paper. In other
words, the numbers should be more or less evenly distributed and most
observations should group together. This is usually the case. Stray observations
or outliers far from the group indicate poor statistical behavior. Observations
on too coarse a scale such as blood pressures reported to the nearest five units
present a problem.
Observations done on a course scale then converted to a
finer scale with more digits per observation are a problem. Observations that
tail off towards the high end such as some blood chemistries may be an accurate
indication of true behavior or may be an indication that observations from
normal subjects have been contaminated by observations from diseased subjects.
Example One. Suppose we are looking at the body
weights of a group of subjects and trying to determine whether the weights are
well behaved. After we finish weighing each individual we notice that some of
the weights are far below the average and some are far above. In other words,
the weights vary widely and this leads us to question the uniformity of the
subjects at least with respect to weight. In order to address this lack of
uniformity the usual procedure is to rewrite the specifications to exclude
doubtful individuals and restrict the scope of the study. The investigator
should make this decision when setting up the study with input from the
statistician.
Example Two. You are administering a stress test to
a patient with congestive heart failure and notice that the test values are
erratic from one test period to another. You are not sure if the erratic values
are due to a worsening of the heart condition or to deficiency in the
implementation of the test procedure. Was the subject sufficiently responsive to
motivation, for instance? Proper training of test personnel is critical to the
success of a study. Careful training and auditing of test procedures is
essential to generating well-behaved data. Proper procedures must be in place
before the study in underway - otherwise the study will have to be restarted.
Observations representing success/ failure or
presence/absence of a condition take the value 1 or the value 0. There is no
question of variability in this case. However, the suitability of the
observations for analysis - how well behaved the observations are - is still an
issue. In this instance the question of well-behaved data is determined by the
selection criteria and the procedure for implementing the criteria.
It is important to note that procedures that are adequate for patient management
may not be adequate for clinical trials. This is because patient management is
an on-going process. There is an opportunity for considering a spectrum of tests
that allows for correction of the treatment regimen over time. In a clinical
trial the test procedure is unique and must stand alone.
Results must never be set aside simply because they do not seem consistent with
other results. The human mind is infinitely inventive when explaining why
unwanted results should be ignored. This is as true in the field of statistical
analysis as it is in any other field. In a properly planned study there will be
a sufficient number of subjects so that an occasional outlier should not cloud
the results. If suspect data does cloud the results then the only sound
procedure is to review the plan, modify as appropriate and repeat the study.
When There is a Prior Commitment to a
Question
Consider a clinical trial that wants to look at treatment efficacy. Evidence of
efficacy will require statistical support and this is available only for a
question that has been precisely formulated. A statistical rule of thumb is that
an adequate and well-controlled clinical trial can answer one question, at best.
Questions suggested by the data are not scientific conclusions, but they may
lead to further study. There can be no support for such statements as "I
really meant to evaluate at 4 weeks, not at 6 weeks", "Well, the
disease process wasn't affected but the quality of life improved",
"There was not much overall improvement but younger subjects seemed to
benefit more than older subjects". Such suggestions are truly in the data
for anyone to see but they must lead to further study if there is real interest.
It is not possible to provide statistical support for a question that is only
suggested by the data.
When there are Appropriate Subjects
In a clinical trial, the subjects are used as instruments to
measure the effectiveness of the therapy. Several conditions must be met before
a subject is accepted for inclusion into a study:
- Subjects must be shown to have the condition the
treatment is proposed to treat.
- Subjects should not be entered into a clinical trial
until their eligibility has been determined.
- Subjects should be uniform with regards to
characteristics such as age, duration of disease and severity.
- No person should be entered in the study unless the
following issues are resolved: a) subjects must give their informed consent,
b) subjects must have a full understanding of the risks and benefits of the
program, and c) subjects must be assured that unwillingness to enter the
study will not compromise their treatment.
Condition One. Subjects must be shown to have the
condition the treatment is proposed to treat. This may seem self-evident but a
number of studies have shown that specific symptoms are not always an indication
of a specific pathology. Review of submissions to the FDA (Food and Drug
Administration) shows that one of the primary reasons a drug is rejected for
approval is because the investigators failed to show proof that the subjects
actually had the condition treated by the drug.
Studies on ulcers should use imaging techniques to show the presence of an ulcer
and not rely solely on symptoms. Earlier work on ulcer treatment often yielded
confusing results as more recent studies with adequate visualization have shown
that symptoms and presence or absence of an ulcer are not closely related.
Medication for the treatment of hypertension must be discontinued prior to the
start of a study to determine whether the subject is still hypertensive. Review
of a number of studies has shown that a substantial number of subjects checked
in this manner did not manifest hypertension.
Condition Two. Subjects should not be entered into a clinical trial until
their eligibility has been determined. Trials under emergency conditions such as
infarcts require special planning beyond the scope of this course.
Condition Three. Subjects should be uniform with regards to
characteristics such as age, duration of disease and severity. Uniformity is
most obviously required regarding characteristics that may influence the disease
or the therapy. The age range should exclude the very young and the very old. If
there is a concern for the response of the geriatric patient to the therapy then
a separate study should be carried out.
If both men and women are included then the assumption is
that the disease process is the same in both sexes and the effect of the therapy
will be similar. Tossing in a few subjects different from the core subjects will
not do. When a therapy has been demonstrated to be effective then the therapy
can be expanded to include the variety of patients encountered in clinical
practice.
Condition Four. No person should be entered in the study unless the
following issues are resolved: a) subjects must give their informed consent, b)
subjects must have a full understanding of the risks and benefits of the
program, and c) subjects must be assured that unwillingness to enter the study
will not compromise their treatment. Many trials involve subjects from public
clinics or institutions. Language barriers, ethnic customs, status differences
and other factors present a challenge when trying to obtain informed consent.
When The Route to the Answer Exists
Formulating a question to be investigated does not insure
that an answer can be found. There is extensive interplay between the question
posed and possible means of answering the question. For example, in the anti-hypertensive
study mentioned above, there might be two (or more) ways to answer the question.
Are we looking at change in blood pressure or at the percentage of subjects who
return to normal range after therapy? In a rheumatic disease study are we
concerned with a reduction of tender and/or swollen joints or an improvement in
overall quality of life? In a post-MI study are we just looking for clot
resolution or are we measuring long term survival? Are we looking for ulcer
resolution in 4 weeks or 6 weeks?
We may look for information at a variety of end points in
the study but answering the study question with a unique answer requires prior
commitment. Variables such as blood pressure, blood chemistries, clot
resolution, etc, will not answer a question if long term results are a concern
and may, in fact be of little interest.
What are some of the roadblocks to finding an answer? Are there enough subjects
for the trial? At Cook County Hospital in Chicago a study was proposed on the
prophylactic use of antibiotics in pregnant woman whose membranes ruptured
prematurely. Despite the thousands of women giving birth at County each year
there would only have been a sufficient number of eligible subjects if the
recruitment continued for seven years. This was clearly impractical.
In the past when the number of subjects was not tied to the number required for
the answer, studies could be small. Such a limited compass promoted uniformity
of implementation and the clinic of an individual investigator sufficed. More
recently, as quantitative requirements for number of subjects has increased, a
single study may involve several widely scattered investigators. The problems
associated with training of investigators and uniformity of implementation
becomes acute in this case.
Geographic variability produces different demographic
characteristics for potential subjects. If a study is carried out across
national borders there will be differences in medical practices and attitudes as
well. European medical practices are much less drug-oriented than US practices.
For example, an anti-hypertensive drug that had been used without problems in
France for several years had to be withdrawn from the US market when it was
shown to cause liver damage.
Having a Written Protocol
In the previous section we discussed some of the issues the investigator
faces with the planning and execution of a study. To assure success it is
essential to begin with a written document detailing the resolution of these and
other issues. Such a document is called a protocol. Using a contemporary phrase,
we need a protocol to make sure everyone is on the same page. Do all the
participants in the study have the same understanding of what is to be done?
When there are several investigators it sometimes occurs that one investigator
has interaction with many more (or many fewer) subjects. Is this due to a
misunderstanding of the protocol requirements? A protocol assists the team in
uniform implementation of the study.
Protocol guidelines have been promulgated by the Food and Drug Administration.
(Food and Drug Administration. Adequate and Well-controlled Clinical Trials. The
Federal Register. Volume 47, No 202 section 314.126 C; 10/19/82.) Other sources
worth consulting on this subject and statistics in general are the columns of
Jane Brody in the New York Times.
Conclusion
(From the Federal Register)
- The study uses a design that permits a valid comparison
with a control to provide a quantitative assessment of drug effect.
- The method of selection of subjects provides adequate
assurance that they have the disease or condition being studied.
- There is a clear statement of the objectives of the
investigation - and in the report of the results.
- The method of assigning patients to treatment and
control groups minimizes bias and is intended to show comparability of the
groups. Ordinarily assignment is by randomization.
- Adequate measures are taking to minimize bias - such as
blinding.
- The methods of assessment of subject's response are
well defined and reliable. The report should explain the variables measured,
the methods of observation and the criteria used to assess the response.
- There is an analysis of the results of the study
adequate to assess the effects of the drug.
Copyright © 1999-2000 Wild Iris Medical Education
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